Rehydration post-transport: duration of oral fluid therapy on behavior, biochemical measures of hydration, and health of neonatal dairy calves.

The objective of this study was to determine the impact of 0, 1, 2, or 3 d of oral electrolyte solutions (OES) following transport on calf behavior, biochemical measures of hydration, and subsequent health. Two cohorts of 60 Holstein bull calves ~3 to 7 d of age were included in this experiment. Calves (n = 30/treatment) were randomized to 1 of 4 treatments on arrival at a calf-raising facility: (1) 1-d OES, (2) 2-d OES, (3) 3-d OES, or (4) no OES (control). Calves were evaluated for signs of arthritis, depression, dehydration, diarrhea, fever, navel inflammation, and respiratory disease on arrival (day 0) and 1, 2, 3, and 7 d after arrival. Blood was obtained following each examination to assess biochemical measures of hydration, including serum electrolytes, glucose, hematocrit, lactate, pH, and serum total protein (STP). Calves were fitted with 3D accelerometers attached to the right hind leg along the metatarsus bone to continuously measure lying time. Linear regression models with Gaussian or Poisson link functions were used to test differences between treatments in blood parameters, as well as disease frequency and behavior, respectively. Calves spent the most time lying immediately post-transport (day 0); however, there was no effect of OES treatment on lying time. On arrival, 90% (95% CI: 84.6% to 95.4%) of calves had mild to moderate dehydration, and there was no significant difference in hydration status across treatments. Mildly dehydrated calves that received 1- and 2-d OES had higher STP concentration compared to the control. Moderately dehydrated calves that received 3- vs. 1-d OES had higher (101.4 vs. 93.7 mmol/L, respectively; P = 0.01) glucose concentration, and 3- vs. 2-d OES (101.4 vs. 96.2, respectively; P = 0.07) calves tended to have higher glucose concentration. The prevalence of failed transfer of passive immunity (STP < 5.1 g/dL) and hypoglycemia (glucose < 4.95 mmol/L) was 26.7% (18.6% to 34.7%) and 76.5% (68.7% to 84.2%), respectively. The frequency of moderate dehydration was lower for calves that received 2-d OES compared to the control (count ratio: 0.4; 0.2% to 0.8%; P = 0.009). These results underline the need for more research on rehydration strategies to help inform calf processing protocols. Future research should investigate preconditioning strategies to minimize the impact of marketing and transport on dairy calves. Continued nutritional-based research is also needed to better support calves' recovery post-transport.

Most male calves are sold and transported from the dairy farm soon after birth. Typically, calves are transported without access to milk and/or water, and they often arrive at calf-raising facilities with varying degrees of dehydration. This study provided calves with 0 (control), 1, 2, or 3 consecutive days of oral electrolyte solutions following transportation and assessed calf behavior, biomarkers of hydration, and subsequent health post-transport. Most calves were dehydrated and hypoglycemic (low blood glucose levels) on arrival at the calf-raising facility. Calves spent the most time lying immediately post-transport; however, electrolytes did not impact total lying time, the number of lying bouts, or lying bout duration. Providing calves with electrolytes for 2 d improved moderate dehydration (assessed via skin tent test) compared to the control. These results suggest that providing calves with 2 consecutive days of electrolytes following transportation can improve hydration status; however, more research is needed to mitigate dehydration prior to arrival at calf-raising facilities.

Efficacy of antimicrobial and nutraceutical treatment for canine acute diarrhoea: A systematic review and meta-analysis for European Network for Optimization of Antimicrobial Therapy (ENOVAT) guidelines.

Systemic antimicrobial treatments are commonly prescribed to dogs with acute diarrhoea, while nutraceuticals (prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics) are frequently administered as an alternative treatment. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to assess the effectiveness of antimicrobials and nutraceutical preparations for treatment of canine acute diarrhoea (CAD). The results of this study will be used to create evidence-based treatment guidelines. PICOs (population, intervention, comparator, and outcome) were generated by a multidisciplinary expert panel taking into account opinions from stakeholders (general practitioners and dog owners). The Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology was used to evaluate the certainty of the evidence. The systematic search yielded six randomised controlled trials (RCT) for antimicrobial treatment and six RCTs for nutraceutical treatment meeting the eligibility criteria. Categories of disease severity (mild, moderate, and severe) were created based on the presence of systemic signs and response to fluid therapy. Outcomes included duration of diarrhoea, duration of hospitalization, progression of disease, mortality, and adverse effects. High certainty evidence showed that antimicrobial treatment did not have a clinically relevant effect on any outcome in dogs with mild or moderate disease. Certainty of evidence was low for dogs with severe disease. Nutraceutical products did not show a clinically significant effect in shortening the duration of diarrhoea (based on very low to moderate certainty evidence). No adverse effects were reported in any of the studies.

The use of metronidazole in acute diarrhea in dogs: a narrative review.

Acute diarrhea is a common reason for non-wellness veterinary visits in dogs. Treatment for acute diarrhea usually consists of supportive care with nutritional intervention, fluid therapy, anthelmintics, and often an antibiotic - commonly metronidazole in North America. The empirical use of metronidazole for acute diarrhea in dogs has been a common practice in veterinary medicine for many decades; however, recent studies evaluating its use suggest it may be inappropriately utilized in many cases. Herein, we review the evidence evaluating the use of metronidazole and other antibiotics in acute diarrhea in the human and veterinary literature. Recommendations on the use of metronidazole and other antibiotics as well as other therapeutic considerations in the treatment of acute diarrhea are also provided.

Ultrasonographic measurement of caudal vena cava to aorta ratio during fluid resuscitation of dogs with spontaneous circulatory shock.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the change in the caudal vena cava to aorta ratio (CVC:Ao) ratio during fluid resuscitation of circulatory shock in dogs and compare these results with those of the physical examination and blood lactate. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Perfusion parameters and blood lactate were recorded at admission. An abdominal point-of-care ultrasound protocol was performed, during which the caudal vena cava to aorta ratio was measured on the spleno-renal view. Measurements were performed within 5 minutes before and after a 10 mL/kg crystalloid fluid bolus. Investigators were not blinded to therapeutic interventions. RESULTS: Twenty-nine dogs with physical signs of circulatory shock were enrolled. Caudal vena cava to aorta ratios were below reference interval in 28 of 29 dogs. After bolus administration, median caudal vena cava diameter increased by 0.14 cm (0.69 to 0.83 cm) and median aorta diameter increased by 0.03 cm (0.87 to 0.90 cm) and caudal vena cava to aorta ratio returned to within reference range in 65% of dogs (13/29). Bolus administration was associated with an increase in median caudal vena cava to aorta ratio of 0.10 (95% CI:0.05 to 0.16, P=0.0005). Blood lactate did not change significantly. Heart rate and capillary refill time decreased significantly after fluid bolus (heart rate: estimate=-19 bpm, 95% CI:-30 to -8, P=0.002; capillary refill time: estimate=-1.0 s, 95% CI:-1.3 to -0.7, P < 0.0001). CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: In this population of dogs with circulatory shock, the caudal vena cava to aorta ratio significantly increased after a fluid bolus. Future studies that implement blinding of the outcome assessors are warranted to confirm these findings.

Contemporary perspectives on perioperative fluid therapy.

The primary purpose of perioperative IV fluid administration is to preserve tissue perfusion by maintaining or restoring the effective circulating intravascular volume. Fluids are drugs that produce beneficial or harmful effects dependent upon their composition, osmotic potential, kinetics, and dose. Appropriate dosing requires an understanding of body fluid compartments, fluid balance, and the administered fluids' behavior in the body. Anesthetic drugs and general anesthesia produce CNS, neuroendocrine, and macro-/microvascular hemodynamic effects. These effects modulate the response to IV fluid administration and promote interstitial fluid accumulation, third-space fluid loss, and fluid overload. This narrative review discusses current knowledge regarding anesthesia-associated physiologic and IV fluid kinetic changes that influence the efficacy of IV fluid administration during the intraoperative period. A rationale for intraoperative fluid dosing that addresses intraoperative hypotension, blood loss, and practices that promote fluid overload is provided. Intraoperative IV fluid administration should be individualized and monitored by dynamic goal-directed methods that evaluate fluid responsiveness.

Efficacy of ultrasonographic caudal vena cava to aorta ratios for quantifying canine parvoviral enteritis rehydration.

Quantifying changes in intravascular fluid volume is important for treatment planning and follow-up assessment in dogs with dehydration. Recently, it has been reported that current standard methods used to estimate intravascular fluid volume in dogs are inadequate, invasive, or have complications such as thrombosis. The ultrasonographic ratio of dimensions for the caudal vena cava relative to the aorta (CVC/Ao) has been previously described as a promising, noninvasive method for quantifying changes in blood volume in dogs. This prospective observational study aimed to describe ultrasonographic CVC/Ao values before and after fluid replacement in a sample of dogs with varying degrees of dehydration due to naturally-occurring canine parvoviral enteritis (CPE), test correlations between this measure and clinical dehydration scores and determine the clinical efficacy of this measure for fluid therapy follow-up. The clinical dehydration score of 30 dogs naturally infected with canine parvovirus was determined at the first admission using standard clinical scoring methods, and then CVC/Ao was measured ultrasonographically. Following initial fluid therapy, the clinical dehydration scores and ultrasonographic CVC/Ao values were remeasured. On the basis of receiver operating characteristic analyses, ultrasonographic CVC/Ao was found to be a more sensitive and specific indicator than physical examination-based methods for estimating intravascular fluid alterations in dogs with dehydration due to parvovirus and rehydration following fluid therapy. Findings supported the use of this measure for treatment planning and follow-up in future dogs presenting with dehydration.

Fluid Therapy in Exotic Animal Emergency and Critical Care.

Many new concepts are emerging in the understanding of fluid therapy in human and mammalian medicine, including the role of the glycocalyx, increased understanding of fluid, sodium, and chloride overload, and the advantages of colloid administration in the form of albumin. None of these concepts, however, appear to be directly applicable to non-mammalian exotic patients, and careful consideration of their alternate physiology is required when formulating fluid plans for these patients.

Effects of calcium supplementation to resuscitation fluids in endurance horses: A randomized, blinded, clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: The addition of calcium to resuscitation fluids is a common practice in horses, but studies evaluating the effects of calcium supplementation are limited. In healthy horses, decreases in heart rate and changes in serum electrolyte concentrations have been reported. HYPOTHESIS: Calcium gluconate administration at a rate of 0.4 mg/kg/min to eliminated endurance horses with metabolic problems will affect heart rate, gastrointestinal sounds, and serum electrolyte concentrations. ANIMALS: Endurance horses eliminated from the Tevis Cup 100-mile (160 km) endurance ride for metabolic problems and requiring IV fluid therapy were eligible. METHODS: Sixteen horses were randomly assigned to receive 0.4 mg/kg/min of calcium (23% calcium gluconate solution) over 1 hour diluted in 10 L of a non-calcium containing isotonic crystalloid (CAL group) or 10 L of a non-calcium containing isotonic crystalloid (CON group). Staff members administering the fluids were blinded to treatment group. Blood samples were collected and physical examinations performed before and after treatment. Heart rates were recorded every 15 min during fluid administration. Data were compared using 2-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures for continuous variables and Fisher's exact test for categorical variables. RESULTS: Calcium was associated with lower heart rates 45 min after starting the infusion (P = .002). Gastrointestinal sounds were less likely to improve in the calcium group compared with the control group (P = .005). An increase in plasma phosphorus concentration (P = .03) was associated with calcium administration. CONCLUSIONS: Intravenous calcium supplementation to endurance horses eliminated from competition after development of metabolic problems may decrease heart rate but impairs improvement in gastrointestinal sounds.

Critical Care of the Colic Patient: Monitoring, Fluid Therapy, and More.

A successful outcome to management of the critical colic patient is highly dependent on how the patient is monitored and treated, particularly, in the perioperative period. In this article, we will provide an update on monitoring techniques, advances in fluid therapy, nutrition management and pharmacotherapeutic agents, inclusive of pain monitoring and management, prokinetics, and management of systemic inflammatory response syndrome and the hypercoagulable state.

Continuous fluid infusion per rectum compared with intravenous fluid infusion in pigs.

BACKGROUND: Peripheral blood vessels in pigs are not easily accessible, making placement of intravenous catheters difficult. Alternative methods to intravenous administration of fluids, such as administering fluids via the rectum (proctoclysis), are warranted in pigs. HYPOTHESIS: Administration of polyionic crystalloid fluids via proctoclysis results in hemodilution changes similar to intravenous administration. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the tolerance for proctoclysis in pigs and compare analytes before and after intravenous or proctoclysis therapy. ANIMALS: Six healthy, growing, academic institution-owned pigs. METHODS: Randomized, cross-over design clinical trial, with 3 treatments (control, intravenous, and proctoclysis) with a 3-day washout period. The pigs were anesthetized and jugular catheters were placed. A polyionic fluid (Plasma-Lyte A 148) was administered at 4.4 mL/kg/h during the intravenous and proctoclysis treatments. Laboratory analytes, including PCV, plasma, and serum total solids, albumin, and electrolytes were measured over 12 h at T0 , T3 , T6 , T9 , and T12 . Effects of treatment and time on analytes were determined by analysis of variance. RESULTS: Proctoclysis was tolerated by pigs. Albumin concentrations decreased during the IV treatment between T0 and T6 (least square mean of 4.2 vs 3.9 g/dL; 95% CI of mean difference = -0.42, -0.06; P = .03). Proctoclysis did not significantly affect any laboratory analytes at any time points (P > .05). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Proctoclysis did not demonstrate hemodilution similar to intravenous administration of polyionic fluids. Proctoclysis might not be an effective alternative to the intravenous administration of polyionic fluids in healthy euvolemic pigs.

Enteral hydration in cows: Comparison between continuous flow and bolus administration.

BACKGROUND: Enteral hydration in cattle is most commonly performed as a bolus (B) via the ororuminal route, although continuous flow (CF) administration via the nasoesophageal route represents a viable alternative. Currently, no study has compared the effectiveness of these two methods. This study aimed to compare the efficiency of enteral hydration using CF and B to correct water, electrolyte and acid-base imbalances in cows. METHODS: Protocols for the induction of dehydration were applied twice to eight healthy cows, with an interval of 1 week. In a crossover design, two types of enteral hydration were performed using the same electrolyte solution and volume equal to 12% of bodyweight (BW): CF (10 mL/kg/h, between 0 and 12 hours) and B (6% BW, twice, at 0 and 6 hours). Clinical and blood variables were determined at -24, 0, 6, 12 and 24 hours and compared using repeated-measures ANOVA. RESULTS: Induced moderate dehydration and hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis were corrected after 12 hours using the two hydration methods, with no differences observed between the methods. LIMITATIONS: The study was conducted with induced rather than natural imbalances, so the findings should be interpreted cautiously. CONCLUSION: Enteral CF hydration is as effective as B hydration in reversing dehydration and correcting electrolyte and acid-base imbalances.

Basic Postoperative Care of the Equine Colic Patient.

The 3 time periods around colic surgery (preoperative, operative, and postoperative) are all critical to successful outcomes. Although much focus is often paid to the first 2 time periods, the importance of sound clinical judgment and rational decision-making in the postoperative period cannot be overstated. This article will outline the basic principles of monitoring, fluid therapy, antimicrobial therapy, analgesia, nutrition, and other therapeutics routinely used in patients following colic surgery. Discussions of the economics of colic surgery and expectations for normal return to function will also be included.

Retrospective analysis of the use of canine-specific albumin in 125 critically ill dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical use of canine-specific albumin (CSA) in critically ill dogs, report adverse events, and evaluate measurable clinical effects of CSA administration. DESIGN: Retrospective case series from 2019 to 2020. SETTING: Large, urban, private-practice referral and emergency center. ANIMALS: Consecutive sample of 125 client-owned dogs administered CSA transfusions. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The conditions most commonly associated with the use of CSA were surgical (32/125) and nonsurgical (20/125) gastrointestinal disease. Both serum albumin and total plasma protein concentrations were significantly increased posttransfusion (P < 0.001), and 16% albumin transfusions produced the greatest magnitude increase in serum albumin (P = 0.0015). Concurrent crystalloid administration did not affect change in albumin. While there was no significant improvement in blood pressure seen in those patients that received albumin, a significant improvement in shock index was identified (P = 0.02). Adverse events were uncommon; however, 8 critically ill dogs died during CSA administration. CONCLUSIONS: CSA appears to be a relatively safe alternative to synthetic colloids and complementary to crystalloids in critically ill patients. More concentrated solutions may be more effective in raising serum albumin concentration. Further investigation into the indications for and efficacy of CSA will continue to improve our knowledge of this blood product.

Esophageal Doppler-derived indices and arterial load variables provide useful hemodynamic information during assessment of fluid responsiveness in anesthetized dogs undergoing acute changes in blood volume.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between invasively measured stroke volume (SV) and (1) esophageal Doppler-derived indices such as stroke distance (StrokeD), flow time corrected (FTc), stroke distance variation (SDV), and peak velocity variation (PVV); and (2) arterial load (AL) variables during evaluation of fluid responsiveness (FR) in anesthetized dogs undergoing sudden hemodynamic shifts in blood volume. ANIMALS: 6 healthy male dogs. PROCEDURES: Dogs were anesthetized with isoflurane, ventilated mechanically, and instrumented to undergo sequential, nonrandomized experimental stages. The dogs transitioned from normovolemia (NORMO-BL) to hypovolemia (30% blood loss; HYPO-30), followed by autologous blood transfusion, and then to hypervolemia (colloid bolus). During each stage, SV was quantified using pulmonary artery thermodilution and its relationship with StrokeD, FTc, SDV, and PVV; and AL variables such as effective arterial elastance (Ea), dynamic arterial elastance (Eadyn), and total arterial compliance (Ca) were established. RESULTS: As SV decreased significantly during HYPO-30 compared to NORMO-BL, there was a significant (P < .001) decrease in StrokeD, FTc, and Ca, with simultaneous increases in SDV, PVV, Ea, and Eadyn. Upon restoration of blood volume, these values stabilized closer to NORMO-BL. A significant (P < .001) correlation was observed between SV and StrokeD, FTc, Ea, Eadyn, and Ca. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Minimally invasive StrokeD, FTc, SDV, and PVV act as SV surrogates and help assess FR during different blood volume stages in healthy dogs. During hypovolemia-induced hypotension, Ea, Eadyn, and Ca may be able to guide therapeutic decisions favoring improvement in blood pressure and SV.

Echocardiographic indicators of fluid responsiveness in hospitalized dogs with compromised hemodynamics and tissue hypoperfusion.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the accuracy of selected echocardiographic variables used to predict fluid responsiveness in hospitalized dogs with compromised hemodynamics and tissue hypoperfusion. DESIGN: Diagnostic test study in a prospective cohort of hospitalized dogs. SETTING: Veterinary referral clinics. ANIMALS: Forty-four hospitalized dogs with compromised hemodynamics and tissue hypoperfusion were utilized in this study. INTERVENTIONS: Echocardiographic examination before and after fluid replacement with 30 ml/kg of lactated Ringer's solution. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Pre-fluid replacement measurements of velocity of transmitral E wave (E-peak), the left ventricular end-diastolic internal diameter normalized to body weight (LVIDdN), and the left ventricular end-systolic internal diameter normalized to body weight (LVIDsN) were significantly lower in fluid-responsive patients compared with nonresponders (P < 0.001). The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) with its 95% confidence interval (CI) for each significant predictor was as follows: E-peak 0.907 (0.776-1.000, P < 0.001) and LVIDdN 0.919 (0.801-1.000, P < 0.001). The predictive capacity of LVIDsN was not significantly better than chance (AUROC, 0.753; 95% CI, 0.472-1.000, P = 0.078). A significant negative linear correlation was observed between the percentage of increase in velocity-time integral after expansion and the echocardiographic variables LVIDdN (rs  = -0.452, P = 0.023) and E-peak (rs  = -0.396, P = 0.008) pre-fluid replacement. The intraobserver and interobserver variability was very low (<5 %) for all measurements. CONCLUSIONS: In this study using critically ill dogs with compromised hemodynamics and tissue hypoperfusion, pre-fluid replacement measurements of LVIDdN and E-peak adequately predict fluid responsiveness. Because a small number of fluid nonresponders were involved in the present study (11.4%), further studies that include larger numbers of fluid-nonresponsive animals are required.

Caudal vena cava measurements and fluid responsiveness in hospitalized cats with compromised hemodynamics and tissue hypoperfusion.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the use of the caudal vena cava collapsibility index (CVCCI) and the inspiratory/minimum and expiratory/maximum diameters of the vena cava to predict fluid responsiveness in hospitalized, critically ill cats with hemodynamic and tissue perfusion abnormalities. DESIGN: Diagnostic test study in a prospective cohort of hospitalized cats. SETTING: Private practice referral hospital. ANIMALS: Twenty-four hospitalized cats with spontaneous breathing and compromised hemodynamics and tissue hypoperfusion. INTERVENTIONS: Ultrasonographic examination before and after fluid expansion with 10 ml/kg of lactated Ringer's solution. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Fluid responsiveness was evaluated using the velocity-time integral (VTI) of the subaortic blood flow, by measuring it before and after a fluid load of 10 ml/kg of lactated Ringer's solution. The CVCCI was calculated using the following formula: (maximum diameter - minimum diameter / maximum diameter) × 100. Ten cats were fluid responders (42 %) and 14 were nonresponders (58 %). The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) with their 95% confidence interval for the predictors and the best cutoff values were as follows: CVCCI, AUROC = 0.83 (0.66-1.00) and cutoff = 31%; inspiratory/minimum diameter, AUROC = 0.86 (0.70-1.00) and cutoff = 0.24 cm; expiratory/maximum diameter, AUROC = 0.88 (0.74-1.00) and cutoff = 0.22 cm. A significant lineal correlation was observed between the percentage of increase in VTI after expansion and CVCCI (rs  = 0.68, P < 0.001), expiratory/maximum diameter (rs  = -0.72, P < 0.001), and inspiratory/minimum diameter (rs  = -0.71, P < 0.001). The intraobserver and interobserver variability was low for VTI, and the expiratory/maximum diameter and inspiratory/minimum diameter were high for CVCCI. CONCLUSIONS: Caudal vena cava measurements could be useful to predict the response to fluids in hospitalized cats with hemodynamic and tissue perfusion alterations. Additional studies are required to draw definitive conclusions about the role of these variables to guide fluid administration in cats.

Outcomes of 434 dogs with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug toxicosis treated with fluid therapy, lipid emulsion, or therapeutic plasma exchange.

BACKGROUND: Traditional management of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) intoxication includes gastrointestinal decontamination, intravenous administration of fluids (IVF), and gastroprotection. Intravenous administration of lipid emulsion (ILE) and therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) are popular novel therapeutic strategies. HYPOTHESIS: Compare outcomes of dogs treated with IVF, ILE, and TPE for NSAID intoxications and evaluate outcome predictors for drug subgroups. ANIMALS: Four hundred thirty-four dogs with NSAID intoxications (2015-2020). METHODS: Multicenter retrospective study of ibuprofen, carprofen, and naproxen intoxication. An ordinal outcome was defined as mild gastrointestinal, moderate kidney, or signs of severe central nervous system disease. RESULTS: Signs of neurological disease were overrepresented and acute kidney injury underrepresented in the TPE group among dogs exposed to kidney- or CNS-toxic doses (P = .05), though all TPE dogs with signs of neurological disease had evidence of neurotoxicity at presentation. Dogs treated with IVF had a higher maximal creatinine concentration (median, 1.1 mg/dL; range, 0.4-8.44 mg/dL) compared with IVF + ILE (median, 0.9 mg/dL; range, 0.4-6.2 mg/dL; P = .01). Increased maximum time to presentation (P < .001), higher baseline creatinine (P < .001) and PCV (P = .007), and absence of induced emesis (P < .001) were associated with greater clinical severity. Ibuprofen toxicosis was associated with more severe clinical signs compared with carprofen (P = .03). Overall survival rate was 99%. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: NSAID toxicosis generally carries an excellent prognosis in dogs. Despite similar outcomes of lower incidence of AKI in the TPE group, and slightly lower maximal creatinine concentration in dogs treated with ILE vs IVF alone, ILE and TPE should be considered in the management of severe NSAID toxicosis.

Can apps be used to formulate fluid therapy plans in veterinary medicine?

BACKGROUND: Formulating sophisticated fluid therapy plans can be complicated and time consuming. Consequently, veterinarians in the field who lack experience, time, or confidence may formulate suboptimal fluid therapy plans. OBJECTIVES: Compare conventional and app-guided fluid therapy plans for simulated cases of neonatal calf diarrhea. PARTICIPANTS: Third and fourth year veterinary students (n = 55) from The University of Sydney. METHODS: We developed a web app to assist fluid therapy formulation (http://calfaid.com) that was evaluated in a randomized case simulation trial. Participants were instructed to perform fluid therapy calculations and formulate an integrated fluid therapy plan for case scenarios using conventional methods and using the fluid therapy app. Responses were scored by a blinded study investigator using an a priori scoring guide and groups (conventional vs. app-guided) were compared using linear mixed models. RESULTS: On average, total scores for app-guided fluid therapy calculations were 20.6% points higher (95% confidence interval [CI], 14.1-27.1) than calculations completed using the conventional method (88.2% vs. 67.5%, respectively). On average, total scores for app-guided integrated fluid therapy plans were 14.2% points higher (95% CI, 6.3-22.2; 65.8% vs. 51.2%). Eighty percent of respondents indicated they would prefer to use the app-guided method over the conventional method. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Our findings suggest that fluid therapy plans can be improved using apps.

Fluid and Electrolyte Therapy During Vomiting and Diarrhea.

Fluid therapy is the most important therapeutic measure in patients suffering from dehydration or hypovolemia owing to gastrointestinal diseases. The therapy should be tailored based on the patient's condition, physical examination, and diagnostic findings. The selection of the specific fluid therapy should be determined by specific abnormalities of the patient and the severity of the gastrointestinal disorder.

Fluid Therapy for Pediatric Patients.

Pediatric dogs and cats within their first 12 weeks of life have important electrolyte requirements and physiologic considerations that may impact fluid therapy. Fluid requirements are higher in pediatrics, while fluid losses are greater due to underdeveloped physiologic responses. Hydration and volume status are difficult to assess in young animals, and their small size makes intravenous (IV) access difficult to obtain. Young patients can quickly deteriorate from dehydration, poor husbandry, and infection and become critically ill, requiring prompt recognition, treatment, intensive care, and monitoring. Clinicians should be aware of all available routes of fluid administration including oral, subcutaneous (SC), intraperitoneal (IP), IV, and intraosseous (IO), and the limitations associated with each route.